| Water Margin | |
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An illustration of the novel |
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| Author(s) | Shi Nai'an |
| Original title | 水滸傳 |
| Country | China |
| Language | Chinese |
| Media type | |
| Water Margin | |||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 水滸傳 | ||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 水浒传 | ||||||
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Water Margin (known in Chinese as Shuihu Zhuan, sometimes abbreviated to Shuihu), also known as Outlaws of the Marsh, All Men Are Brothers, Men of the Marshes, or The Marshes of Mount Liang, is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature.
Attributed to Shi Nai'an and written in vernacular Chinese, the story, set in the Song Dynasty, tells of how a group of 108 outlaws gathered at Mount Liang (or Liangshan Marsh) to form a sizable army before they are eventually granted amnesty by the government and sent on campaigns to resist foreign invaders and suppress rebel forces. The novel was originally titled in Chinese Jianghu Haoke Zhuan (江湖豪客傳), and the title was sometimes extended to Zhongyi Shuihu Zhuan (忠義水滸傳).
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Water Margin is a novel based on the outlaw Song Jiang and his 36 companions. The group was active in the Huainan region and surrendered to the Song Dynasty government in 1121. They were recorded in the historical text History of Song. The name of "Song Jiang" appeared in the biography of Emperor Huizong of Song, which stated:
The outlaw Song Jiang of Huainan and others attacked the army at Huaiyang, (the Emperor) sent generals to attack and arrest them. (The outlaws) infringed on east of the capital (Kaifeng), Hebei, and entered the boundaries of Chu (referring to present-day Hubei and Hunan) and Haizhou (covering parts of present-day Jiangsu). The prefect Zhang Shuye was ordered to pacify them.[1]
Zhang Shuye's biography further described Song Jiang and the outlaws' activities, and how they were eventually defeated by Zhang.[2]
Folk stories of Song Jiang circulated during the Southern Song Dynasty. The first text to name Song Jiang's 36 companions was Miscellaneous observations from the year of Guixin (癸辛雜識) by Zhou Mi, written in the 13th century. Among the 36 were Lu Junyi, Guan Sheng, Ruan Xiaoer, Ruan Xiaowu, Ruan Xiaoqi, Liu Tang, Hua Rong and Wu Yong. Some of the characters who later became associated with Song Jiang also appeared around this time. They include Sun Li, Yang Zhi, Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Wu Song.
A direct precursor of Water Margin was the Old incidents in the Xuanhe period of the great Song Dynasty (大宋宣和遺事), which appeared around the mid 13th century. The text is a written version of storytellers' tales, based on supposed historical events. It is divided into ten chapters, roughly covering the history of the Song Dynasty from the early 11th century to the establishment of the Southern Song regime in 1127. The fourth chapter covers the adventures of Song Jiang and his 36 companions, and their eventual defeat by Zhang Shuye. Some of the more well known stories and characters in Water Margin are clearly visible, including "Yang Zhi sells his precious saber", "Robbing the convoy of birthday gifts", "Song Jiang kills Yan Poxi", "Fighting Fang La", among others. Song Jiang and his outlaws were said to operate in the Taihang Mountains.
Stories about the outlaws became a popular subject for Yuan Dynasty drama. During this time, the material on which Water Margin was based evolved into what it is in the present. The number of outlaws increased to 108. Even though they came from different backgrounds (including scholars, fishermen, imperial drill instructors etc.), all of them eventually came to occupy Mount Liang (or Liangshan Marsh). There is a theory that Water Margin became popular during the Yuan era as the common people (predominantly Han Chinese) resented the Mongol rulers. The outlaws' rebellion was deemed "safe" to promote as it was supposedly a negative reflection of the fallen Song Dynasty. Concurrently, the rebellion was also a call for the common people to rise up against corruption in the government. The Chongzhen Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, acting on the advice of his ministers, banned the book as a means of preventing revolts.[3]
The novel, praised as one of the earliest "masterpieces" of vernacular fiction,[4] is renowned for the "mastery and control" of its mood and tone.[4] The work is however also known for its use of vivid, humorous and especially racy languages.[4] It has been denounced as "obscene" by various critics from the Ming Dynasty on.[5]
| “ | These seduction cases are the hardest of all. There are five conditions that have to be met before you can succeed. First, you have to be as handsome as Pan An. Second, you need a tool as big as a donkey’s. Third, you must be as rich as Deng Tong. Fourth, you must be as forbearing as a needle plying through cotton wool. Fifth, you’ve got to spend time. It can be done only if you meet these five requirements.
Frankly, I think I do. First, while I’m far from a Pan An, I still can get by. Second, I’ve had a big cock since childhood. |
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— An excerpt from the novel with English translation by Sidney Shapiro.[6]
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The opening episode in the novel is the release of the 108 spirits, imprisoned under an ancient stele-bearing tortoise.[7] The next chapter describes the rise of Gao Qiu, one of the primary antagonists of the story. Gao Qiu abuses his status as a grand marshal by bullying Wang Jin, whose father taught Gao a painful lesson when the latter was still a street roaming ruffian. Wang Jin flees from the capital with his mother and by chance he meets Shi Jin, who becomes his student. The next few chapters tell the story of Shi Jin's friend Lu Zhishen, followed by the story of Lu's sworn brother Lin Chong. Lin Chong is framed by Gao Qiu for attempted assassination and almost dies in a fire at a supply depot set by Gao's lackeys. He slays his foes and abandons the depot, eventually making his way to Liangshan Marsh, where he becomes an outlaw. Meanwhile, the "Original Seven", led by Chao Gai, rob a convoy of birthday gifts intended for the minister Cai Jing, another primary antagonist of the story. They flee to Liangshan Marsh after defeating a group of soldiers sent by the authorities to arrest them, and settle down there as outlaws as well, with Chao Gai as chief of the outlaw band. As the story progresses, more people come to join the outlaw band, among whom include army generals and civil servants who grew tired of serving the corrupt government, as well as men with special skills and talents. Stories of the outlaws are told in separate sections in the following chapters. Connections between characters are vague, but the individual stories are eventually pieced together by chapter 40 after Song Jiang succeeds Chao Gai as the leader of the outlaw band, after the latter dies in battle against the Zeng Family Fortress.
The plot further develops by illustrating the conflicts between the outlaws and the Song government after the Grand Assembly. Song Jiang strongly advocates making peace with the government and seeking redress for the outlaws. After defeating the imperial armies, the outlaws are eventually granted amnesty by the Emperor Huizong. The emperor recruits them to form a military contingent and allows them to embark on campaigns against invaders from the Liao Dynasty and suppress the rebel forces of Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La within the Song Dynasty's domain.
The following outline of chapters is based on a 100 chapters edition. Yang Dingjian's 120 chapters edition includes other campaigns of the outlaws on behalf of Song Dynasty, while Jin Shengtan's 70 chapters edition omits the chapters on the outlaws' acceptance of amnesty and subsequent campaigns.
| Chapter | Main events |
|---|---|
| 1 | Marshal Hong releases the 108 spirits |
| 2 | The rise of Gao Qiu |
| 2–3 | The story of Shi Jin |
| 3–7 | The story of Lu Zhishen |
| 7–12 | The story of Lin Chong |
| 12–13 | The story of Yang Zhi |
| 13–20 | The robbing of the birthday gifts by the "Original Seven" |
| 20–22 | The story of Song Jiang |
| 23–32 | The story of Wu Song |
| 32–35 | The story of Hua Rong |
| 36–43 | Song Jiang's encounters in Jiangzhou |
| 44–47 | The story of Shi Xiu and Yang Xiong |
| 47–50 | The three assaults on the Zhu Family Village |
| 51–52 | The story of Lei Heng and Zhu Tong |
| 53–55 | The outlaws attack Gaotangzhou; the search for Gongsun Sheng |
| 55–57 | The first imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Huyan Zhuo) |
| 57–59 | The outlaws attack Qingzhou; Huyan Zhuo defects to Liangshan |
| 59–60 | The outlaws led by Gongsun Sheng attack Mount Mangdang |
| 60 | The first assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Village; the death of Chao Gai |
| 60–67 | The story of Lu Junyi; the outlaws attack Daming Prefecture; the second imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Guan Sheng) |
| 67 | Guan Sheng defects to Liangshan; The third imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Shan Tinggui and Wei Dingguo) |
| 68 | The second assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Fortress; |
| 69–70 | The outlaws attack Dongping and Dongchang prefectures |
| 71–74 | The Grand Assembly; the funny and lethal antics of Li Kui |
| 75–78 | The emperor offers amnesty for the first time; the fourth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Tong Guan) |
| 78–80 | The fifth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Gao Qiu) |
| 81–82 | The outlaws are granted amnesty |
| 83–89 | The Liangshan heroes attack the Liao invaders |
| 90–99 | The Liangshan heroes attack Fang La |
| 100 | The tragic dissolution of the Liangshan heroes |
The extended version includes the Liangshan heroes' expeditions against other notable rebel leaders, Tian Hu in Hebei and Wang Qing in Sichuan, prior to the campaign against Fang La.
Other stories tells such as the heroes fighting the Jurchen-ruled Jin Dynasty or moving to Siam.[8][9][10]
There is considerable debate on the authorship of Water Margin. While most attribute the novel to Shi Nai'an,[11][12] there were some who believe that the novel, or portions of it, was written by others, such as Luo Guanzhong (the author of Romance of the Three Kingdoms), Shi Hui (施惠) and Guo Xun (郭勛).
Many scholars believe that the first 70 chapters were written by Shi Nai'an, while the final 30 chapters were written by Luo Guanzhong.[12] Luo may have been a student of Shi.[12] Another theory, which first appeared in Gao Ru's Baichuan Shuzhi (百川書志) during the Ming Dynasty, suggests that the whole novel was written and compiled by Shi Nai'an, and then edited by Luo Guanzhong later.
Another thesis states that the novel was created based on information accumulated over time. Stories of the Liangshan outlaws first appeared in Old incidents in the Xuanhe period of the great Song Dynasty (大宋宣和遺事) and have been circulating since the Southern Song Dynasty, while folk tales and opera related to Water Margin have already existed long before the novel itself came into existence. This theory suggests that Shi Nai'an gathered and compiled these pieces of information to write Water Margin.
Some believe that Water Margin was written entirely by Luo Guanzhong. Wang Daokun (汪道昆), who lived during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor in the Ming Dynasty, first mentioned in Classification of Water Margin (水滸傳敘) that: "someone with the family name Luo, who was a native of Yue (a reference to the southern China region covering Zhejiang), wrote the 100-chapter novel." Several scholars from the late Ming and Qing dynasties after Wang Daokun's time also pointed out that Luo Guanzhong was the author of Water Margin. During the early Republican era, Lu Xun and Yu Pingbo suggested that the simplified edition of Water Margin was written by Luo Guanzhong, while the traditional version was by Shi Nai'an.
However, Huikang Yesou (惠康野叟) in Shi Yu (識餘) disagree with Wang Daokun's view on the grounds that there were significant differences between Water Margin and Romance of the Three Kingdoms, therefore these two novels could not have been written by the same person.
Hu Shih felt that the draft of Water Margin was done by Luo Guanzhong, and could have contained the chapters on the outlaws' campaigns against Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La, but not invaders from the Liao Dynasty.[13]
Another theory states that Luo Guanzhong was from the Southern Song period and not the Ming Dynasty. Cheng Muheng (程穆衡) suggested in Notes on Water Margin (水滸傳注略) that Luo lived in the late Southern Song Dynasty and early Yuan era. Huang Lingen (黃霖根) pointed out that the name of one of the compilers of Anecdotes of Jingkang (靖康稗史) was Nai'an, and suggested that this "Nai'an", who lived during the Southern Song Dynasty, was Shi Nai'an. He also felt that Shi Nai'an wrote a simplified version of Water Margin, which is not the current edition.
Water Margin was also said by some to be authored by Shi Hui (施惠), a nanxi (southern opera) playwright who lived during the late Yuan Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty.
Xu Fuzuo (徐復祚) of the Ming Dynasty mentioned in Sanjia Cunlao Weitan (三家村老委談) that Junmei (君美; Shi Hui's style name)'s intention in writing Water Margin was to entertain people, and not to convey any messages.
During the Qing Dynasty many people started linking Shi Hui and Shi Nai'an together, suggesting that they are actually the same person. An unnamed writer wrote in Chuanqi Huikao Biaomu (傳奇會考標目) that Shi Nai'an's given name was actually Hui, style name Juncheng (君承), and he was a native of Hangzhou. Sun Kaidi (孫楷第) also wrote in Bibliography of Chinese Popular Fiction that "Nai'an" was Shi Hui's pseudonym. Later studies revealed that Water Margin contained lines in the Jiangsu and Zhejiang dialect, and that You Gui Ji (幽闺记), a work of Shi Hui, bore some resemblance to Water Margin, hence the theory that Water Margin was authored by Shi Hui.
Another theory attributes the authorship of Water Margin to Guo Xun (郭勛), a politician who lived during the Ming Dynasty. Shen Defu (沈德符) mentioned in Wanli Yehuo Bian (萬曆野獲編) that Guo Xun wrote Water Margin. Shen Guoyuan (沈國元) added in Huangming Congxin Lu (皇明從信錄) that Guo Xun mimicked the writing styles of Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin to write Guochao Yinglie Ji (國朝英烈記). Qian Xiyan (錢希言) also stated in Xi Gu (戲嘏) that Guo Xun edited Water Margin before.
Hu Shih countered this theory in his Research on Water Margin (水滸傳新考) that Guo Xun's name was used as a disguise for the real author of Water Margin. Dai Bufan (戴不凡) had a differing view, as he suspected that Guo Xun wrote Water Margin, and then used "Shi Nai'an" to conceal his identity as the author of the novel.
The earliest editions of the Water Margin (in manuscript copies) were from the late 14th century.[14] The earliest extant complete edition of Water Margin is a 100-chapter printed book dating from the mid-16th century. Another edition, with 120 chapters by Yang Dingjian (楊定見), has been preserved from the reign of the Wanli Emperor (1573–1620) in the Ming Dynasty. Yet other editions were published since this era to the early Qing Dynasty, including a 70-chapter edition by Jin Shengtan.
A printed copy of the Water Margin, dating from the Jiajing Emperor's reign in the Ming Dynasty, titled Jingben Zhongyi Zhuan (京本忠義傳), is currently preserved in the Shanghai Library. The various editions of Water Margin can roughly be classified into two groups - simplified and traditional.
The simplified editions include stories on the outlaws being granted amnesty, followed by their campaigns against the Liao Dynasty, Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La, all the way until Song Jiang's death. At one point, the later chapters were compiled into a separate novel, titled Sequel to Water Margin (續水滸傳), which is attributed to Luo Guanzhong.
Known simplified editions of Water Margin include:
The traditional editions are more descriptive and circulated more widely than their simplified counterparts. The three main versions of the traditional editions are a 100 chapters, a 120 chapters and a 70 chapters edition. The most commonly modified parts of the traditional edition are the stories on what happened after the outlaws are granted amnesty.
The Water Margin has been translated into many languages. Japanese translations date back to at least 1757, when the first volume of an early Suikoden (Water Margin rendered in Japanese) was printed.[15] Other early adaptations include Takebe Ayakari's 1773 Japanese Water Margin (Honcho suikoden),[16] the 1783 Women's Water Margin (Onna suikoden),[17] and Santō Kyōden's 1801 Chushingura Water Margin (Chushingura suikoden).[18]
In 1805, Kyokutei Bakin released a Japanese translation of the Water Margin illustrated by Hokusai.[19] The book, called the New Illustrated Edition of the Suikoden (Shinpen Suikogaden), was a success during the Edo period and spurred a Japanese "Suikoden" craze.[19]
In 1827, publisher Kagaya Kichibei commissioned Utagawa Kuniyoshi to produce a series of woodblock prints illustrating the 108 heroes of the Water Margin.[19] The 1827-1830 series, called 108 Heroes of the Water Margin or Tsuzoku Suikoden goketsu hyakuhachinin no hitori, catapulted Kuniyoshi to fame.[19][20] It also brought about a craze for multicolored pictorial tattoos that covered the entire body from neck to mid-thigh.[20]
Following the great commercial success of the Kuniyoshi series, other ukiyo-e artists were commissioned to produce prints of the Water Margin heroes, which began to be shown as Japanese heroes rather than the original Chinese personages.[19]
Among these later series was Yoshitoshi's 1866-1867 series of 50 designs in Chuban size, which are darker than Kuniyoshi's and feature strange ghosts and monsters.[19]
Pearl S. Buck was one of the first English translators of the 70-chapter version. Titled All Men are Brothers and published in 1933, the book was well-received by the American public. However, it was also heavily criticized for its errors and inaccuracies; an often cited example from this edition is Buck's mistranslation of Lu Zhishen's nickname "Flowery Monk" as "Priest Hua".[21]
Of the later translations, Chinese-naturalized scholar Sidney Shapiro's Outlaws of the Marsh (1980) is considered to be one of the best. However, as it was published during the Cultural Revolution, this edition received little attention then.[22] It is a translation of a combination of both the 70-chapter and 100-chapter versions. The most recent translation, titled The Marshes Of Mount Liang, by Alex and John Dent-Young, is a five-volume translation of the 120-chapter version.
The Water Margin is referred to in numerous Japanese manga, such as Tetsuo Hara and Buronson's Fist of the North Star, and Masami Kurumada's Fūma no Kojirō, Otokozaka and Saint Seiya. In both works of fiction, characters bearing the same stars of the Water Margin characters as personal emblems of destiny are featured prominently. Recently, a Japanese manga called Akaboshi: Ibun Suikoden, based on the story of Water Margin, has been serialized in Weekly Shonen Jump.
Between 1978 and 1988, Italian artist Magnus published four acts of his work, I Briganti, which places the Water Margin story in a science fiction setting. Before his death in 1996, the four completed "acts" were published in volume by Granata Press; two following "acts" were planned but never completed.
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